18. Dwight Eisenhower, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953-1956 (New York, 1963) p. 340.

19. For a discussion of post-war politics in South Korea see:

a) Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945-1947 (Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1981) passim. b) E. Grant Meade, American Military Government in Korea (Kings Crown Press, Columbia University, New York, 1951) chapters 3-5.

c) George M. McCune, Korea Today (Institute of Pacific Relations, New York, 1950) passim, pp. 46-50 (KPR). Professor McCune worked with the US Government on Korean problems during World War IL

d) D, F. Fleming, The Cold War and us Origins, 1917-1960 (Doubleday & Co., New York, 1961) pp. 589-97.

e) Alfred Crofts, The Case of Korea: Our Falling Ramparts , The Nation (New York) 25 June 1960, pp. 544-8. Crofts was a member of the US Military Government in Korea beginning in 1945.

20. Crofts, p. 545.

21. Gunther, p. 165.

22. Crofts, p. 545.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid., p. 546.

25. Collaborators: Cumings, pp. 152-6; Meade, p. 61; McCune, p. 51; plus elsewhere in these sources, as well as in Fleming and Crofts. Japanese and collaborators retaining positions to thwart the KPR: Cumings, pp. 138-9.

26. McCune, pp. 83-4, 129-39, 201 -9.

27. 1946 election: Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (New York 1948) p. 398; 1948 election: Crofts, p. 546; Halliday, pp. 117-22; 1950 election and US warning: Fleming, p, 594. For a discussion of Rhees thwarting of honest elections in 1952 and later, and his consistently tyrannical rule, see William J. Lederer, A Nation of Sheep (W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1961), chapter 4.

28. Gunther, pp. 166-7.

29. Gayn, p. 388.

30. Ibid., p. 352.

31. John Kie-Chiang Oh, Korea: Democracy on Trial (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1968) p. 35.

32. The Nation (New York), 13 August 1949, p. 152.

33. Gunther, p. 171.

34. Oh, p. 206; see also New York Times, 11 April 1951, p. 4 for an account of a massacre of some 500 to 1,000 people in March in the same place, which appears to refer to the same incident.

35. Jon Halliday, The Political Background , in Gavan McCormack and Mark Selden, eds., Korea, North and South; The Deepening Crisis [New York, 1978) p. 56.

36. New York Times, 11 April 1951, p.4.

37. Rene Cutforth, On the Korean War , The Listener (BBC publication, London) 11 September 1969, p. 343.

38. Gregory Henderson, Korea: The Politics of the Vortex (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1968) p, 167.

39. New York Times, 9 February 1951, George Barrett.

40. Goulden, pp. 471-2. This information derives from Gouldens interview of Tofte.

41. New York Times, 27 November 1951, p. 4.

42. Eugene Kinkead, Why They Collaborated (London, 1960) p. 17; published in the US in 1959 in slightly different form as In Every War But Owe- The Army study was not contained in any one volume, but was spread out over a number of separate reports. Kinkeads book, written with the full co-operation of the Army, is composed of a summary of some of these reports, and interviews with many government and military

officials who were directly involved in or knowledgeable about the study or the subject. For the sake of simplicity, I have referred 10 the book as if it were the actual study. It is to the Armys credit that much of the results of the study were not kept secret; the study, nonetheless, contains some anti-communist statements of the most bizarre sort: lying is often punished in China by death ... communists live like animals all their lives ... [pp. 190, 193]

43. Keesings Contemporary Archives, 5-12 January 1952, p. 11931, an announcement on 31 December 1951 from General Ridgeways headquarters.

44. Kinkead, p. 34.

45. Robert J. Lifton, Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of Brainwashing in China (London, 1961), p. 4

46. John Marks, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control (New York, paperback edition, 1988), p. 25, based on CIA documents.

47. Sunday Times (London), 6 July 1975, p. 1. Narut at the time was working at a OS naval hospital in Naples, Italy, and made his remarks at a NATO-sponsored conference held in Oslo, Norway the week before.

48. Kinkead, p. 31.

49. Ibid., pp. 17, 34.

50. Ibid., pp. 105-6.

51. Ibid., p. 197.

52. For a concise description of the terror bombing of 1952-53, see John Gittings, Talks, Bombs and Germs: Another Look at the Korean War , Journal of Contemporary Asia (London) Vol. 5, No. 2, 1975, pp. 212-6.

53. Air Force Communique, 2 February 1951, cited by Stone, p. 259

54. Military Situation in the Far East, Hearings Before the Senate Committees on Armed Services and Foreign Relations, 25 June 1951, p. 3075.

55. Louis Heren, The Korean Scene , in Rear-Admiral H.G. Thursfield, ed., Brasseys Annual: The Armed forces Year-Book 19.51 (London, 1951) p. 110.

56. San Francisco Chronicle, 15 December 1977, p. 11, based on documents released under the Freedom of Information Act.

57. New York Times, 12 November 1951, p. 3.

58. Ibid., 14 November 1951, p. 1.

6. ALBANIA 1949-1953

1. Douglas Sutherland, The Fourth Man (London, 1980) p. 88.

2. Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA (New York, 1979), p. 54.

3. Nicholas Bethell, The Great Betrayal: The Untold Story of Kim Philbys Biggest Coup (London, 1984) passim, for the most detailed discussion of the recruitment, training and fate of the emigres (published in New York, 1984 as Betrayed). See also Bruce Page, David Leitch, and Philip Knightly, The Philby Conspiracy (New York, 1968) pp. 196-203.

4. Kim Philby, My Silent War (Great Britain, 1968), p. 117.

5. F.. Howard Hunt, Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent (London, 1975) p. 93.

6. See note 3 above.

7. Political background of the emigres: New York Times, 20 June 1982, p. 22; Bethell, passim; Christopher Simpson, Blowback: Americas Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War (New York, 1988), p. 123 (Xhafer Deva).

8. Radio station, unrest: New York Times, 31 March 1951, p. 5; 9 April 1951, p. l; 26 September 1951.

9. Philby,p. 118.

10. New York Times, 27 March 1950; 9 April 1951, p. 1.

11. Bethell, p. 183.

12. New York Times, 9 April 1951, p. 1.

13. Bethell, p. 200.

7. EASTERN EUROPE 1945-1956

1. New York Times, 29 September 1954.

2. The story of Operation Splinter Factor comes from the book of the same name by Stewart Steven published in London in 1974. Steven, a veteran British journalist and Editor of The Mail on Sunday (London), provides much greater detail than the short summary appearing here. He presents a strong case, and one has to read the entire book to appreciate this. Nonetheless, his central thesis remains undocumented. Steven states that this thesis - Alien Dulles instigating Jozef Swiatlo to use Noel Field in the manner described - comes from personal interviews with former members of the CIA, the SIS (the British Secret Intelligence Service) and other people involved in the conspiracy who insisted on remaining anonymous. Flora Lewis, the Washington Post correspondent who wrote Red Pawn: The Story of Noel Field {New York, 1965; published in London the same year as The Man Who Disappeared: The Strange History of Noel Field), stated in that book that she ran into an official barrier of silence when she requested information from American, Swiss, French, British and German intelligence centers on even plain questions of dates and places . And she was not inquiring about Operation Splinter Factor per se, which she knew nothing about, only about Noel Field a decade after he had been released. Similarly, the US government, without explanation, flatly refused her access to Jozef Swiatlo. Richard Harris Smith, OSS: The Secret History of Americas First Central Intelligence Agency {University of California Press, paperback edition, 1972), p. 238 note, writes that It was later suggested that Fields arrest was actually part of a British plot to split the East European Communists, as outlined in John Le Carres The Spy Who Came in From the Cold. Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA (Pocket Books, New York, 1979, paperback) pp. 405-6, suggests that Stewart Stevens central premise apparently came from someone in the British SIS who did not like Dulles.

3. New York Times, 25 October 1954, p. 1.

4. Ibid., 19 February 1955, p. 1.

5. Ibid., 17 November 1954, p. 1.

6. Blanche W. Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower (New York, 1981) p. 129.

7. Ibid.

8. Cord Meyer, Pacing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York, 1980) p, 120; Steven, pp. 208-9; Lewis, p. 238 (torture).

9. New York Times, 23 July 1948, p. 5; Robert Bishop and E. S. Crayfield, Russia Astride the Balkans {New York, 1948), pp. 264-71.

10. New York Times, 9 April 1951 (column by C. Sulzberger).

11. Cook, pp. 130-1; George Clay, Balloons for a Captive Audience , The Reporter (New York) 18 November 1954; Robert T. Holt and Robert W. van de Velde, Strategic Psychological Operations and American Foreign Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1960) ch. VII.

12. New York Times, 24 January 1952, p, 4.

13. Ibid., 30 August 1955, p. 1.

14. Ibid., 30 November 1976.

15. Stephen Ambrose, ikes Spies (Doubleday & Co., New York, 1981) pp. 235, 238.